Mwiche Nalupumbwe, 26, was among hundreds who braved the morning chill to queue at polling stations well before they opened.

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“Zambians are frustrated and this election is a 50-50, that is why we are all here early to make the change,” he told the AFP news agency.

“I voted for HH because he cares about us,” James Phiri, a 29-year-old student at the University of Zambia, told the Reuters news agency, using a common nickname for the president.

“Things are better after he re-introduced meal allowances,” he said.